Ascorbic acid production from yeast

ABSTRACT

Herein is disclosed a method of generating ascorbic acid from yeast. In one embodiment, the yeast is a  Zygosaccharomyces  spp. or a  Kluyveromyces  spp. growing in a medium comprising an ascorbic acid precursor. In a second embodiment the yeast is a recombinant yeast growing in a medium comprising an ascorbic acid precursor. Preferably the recombinant yeast is transformed with a coding region encoding an enzyme selected from L-galactose dehydrogenase (LGDH), L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (AGD), D-arabinose dehydrogenase (ARA), D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase (ALO) or L-gulono-1,4-lactone oxidase (RGLO). The ascorbic acid precursor is preferably D-glucose, L-galactose, L-galactono-1,4-lactone, or L-gulono-1,4-lactone. In another preferred embodiment the ascorbic acid is accumulated in the medium at levels greater than background. Preferably, the yield of the conversion of the precursor to ascorbic acid is preferably at least about 35%.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates generally to the field of ascorbic acid production. More particularly, it relates to a process for the production of L-ascorbic acid from yeast, including recombinant yeast.

2. Description of Related Art

L-ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is a powerful water-soluble antioxidant that is vital for growth and maintenance of all tissue types in humans. One important role of ascorbic acid is its involvement in the production of collagen, an essential cellular component for connective tissues, muscles, tendons, bones, teeth and skin. Collagen is also required for the repair of blood vessels, bruises, and broken bones. Ascorbic acid helps regulate blood pressure, contributes to reduced cholesterol levels, and aids in the removal of cholesterol deposits from arterial walls. Ascorbic acid also aids in the metabolization of folic acid, regulates the uptake of iron, and is required for the conversion of the amino acids L-tyrosine and L-phenylalanine into noradrenaline. The conversion of tryptophan into seratonin, the neurohormone responsible for sleep, pain control, and well-being, also requires adequate supplies of ascorbic acid.

A deficiency of L-ascorbic acid can impair the production of collagen and lead to joint pain, anemia, nervousness and retarded growth. Other effects are reduced immune response and increased susceptibility to infections. The most extreme form of ascorbic acid deficiency is scurvy, a condition evidenced by swelling of the joints, bleeding gums, and the hemorrhaging of capillaries below the surface of the skin. If left untreated, scurvy is fatal.

Although intestines easily absorb ascorbic acid, it is excreted to the urine within two to four hours of ingestion. Therefore, it cannot be stored in the body. L-ascorbic acid is produced in all higher plants and in the liver or kidney of most higher animals, but not humans, bats, some birds and a variety of fishes. Therefore, humans must have access to sufficient amounts of ascorbic acid from adequate dietary sources or supplements in order to maintain optimal health.

Food sources of ascorbic acid include citrus fruits, potatoes, peppers, green leafy vegetables, tomatoes, and berries. Ascorbic acid is also commercially available as a supplement in forms such as pills, tablets, powders, wafers, and syrups.

L-Ascorbic acid is approved for use as a dietary supplement and chemical preservative by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and is on the FDA's list of substances generally recognized as safe. L-Ascorbic acid may be used in soft drinks as an antioxidant for flavor ingredients, in meat and meat-containing products, for curing and pickling, in flour to improve baking quality, in beer as a stabilizer, in fats and oils as an antioxidant, and in a wide variety of foods for ascorbic acid enrichment. L-Ascorbic acid may also find use in stain removers, hair-care products, plastics manufacture, photography, and water treatment.

The enzymes of the biosynthetic pathways leading to ascorbic acid have not been identified yet to completion. Current understanding of the physiological pathways in plants and animals is shown in FIG. 1.

In animals, D-glucose serves as the first precursor and the last step is catalyzed by a microsomal L-gulono-1,4-lactone oxidase. The enzyme has been isolated and characterized from different sources. The gene from rat has been cloned and sequenced (Koshizaka T. et al., 1998, J. Biol. Chem. 263, 1619-1621.)

Two discrete pathways have been reported for ascorbic acid synthesis in plants. In one pathway, L-ascorbic acid is synthesized from D-glucose via L-sorbosone (Loewus M. W. et al., 1990, Plant. Physiol. 94, 1492-1495). Current evidence suggests that the main physiological pathway proceeds from D-glucose via L-galactose and L-galactono-1,4-lactone to L-ascorbic acid (Wheeler G. L. et al. 1998, Nature, 393, 365-369). The last two steps are catalyzed by the enzymes L-galactose dehydrogenase and L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase. Also in this case, the last enzyme has been isolated and characterized, and the gene from Brassica oleracea has been cloned and sequenced (Østergaard J. et al. 1997, J. Biol. Chem., 272, 30009-30016).

For use as a dietary supplement, ascorbic acid can be isolated from natural sources or synthesized chemically by the oxidation of L-sorbose as in variations of the Reichstein process (U.S. Pat. No. 2,265,121).

It remains desirable to have methods for the production of ascorbic acid by convenient processes. Two main requirements in the production of ascorbic acid are that the synthesis should be enantioselective, because only the L-enantiomer of ascorbic acid is biologically active, and that the environment of the final steps of the process should be non-oxidative, because ascorbic acid is very easily oxidized.

One possible approach is the production of L-ascorbic acid from microorganisms. Microorganisms can be easily grown on an industrial scale. Although the production of L-ascorbic acid from microorganisms and fungi has been reported in the past, recent evidence proves that L-ascorbic acid analogues, and not L-ascorbic acid, are found (Huh W. K. et al. 1998, Mol. Microbiol. 30, 4, 895-903)(Hancock R. D. et al., 2000, FEMS Microbiol. Let. 186, 245-250)(Dumbrava V. A. et al. 1987, BBA 926, 331-338)(Nick J. A. et al., 1986, Plant Science, 46, 181-187). In yeasts (Candida and Saccharomyces species), the production of erythroascorbic acid has been reported (Huh W. K. et al., 1994, Eur. J. Biochem, 225, 1073-1079)(Huh W. K. et al., 1998, Mol. Microbiol. 30, 4, 895-903). In such yeasts, a physiological pathway has been proposed proceeding from D-glucose via D-arabinose and D-arabinono-1,4-lactone to erythroascorbic acid (Kim S. T. et al., 1996, BBA, 1297, 1-8). The enzymes D-arabinose dehydrogenase and D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase from Candida albicans as well as S. cerevisiae have been characterized. Interestingly, L-galactose and L-galactono-1,4-lactone are substrates for these activities in vitro.

In vivo production of L-ascorbic acid has been obtained by feeding L-galactono-1,4-lactone to wild-type Candida cells (International Patent Application WO85/01745). Recently it has been shown that wild-type S. cerevisiae cells accumulated intracellularly L-ascorbic acid when incubated with L-galactose, L-galactono-1,4-lactone, or L-gulono-1,4-lactone (Hancock et al., 2000, FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 186, 245-250)(Spickett C. M. et al., 2000, Free Rad. Biol. Med. 28, 183-192).

Wild-type Candida cells incubated with L-galactono-1,4-lactone accumulate L-ascorbic acid in the medium, suggesting that this yeast has a biological mechanism for the release of the intracellular accumulated L-ascorbic acid; indeed, L-ascorbic acid is a complex molecule and it is scientifically reasonable that its accumulation in the medium is not related to a simple diffusion process, but should depend on facilitated or active transport. This conclusion is supported by the identification and characterization of L-ascorbic acid transporters in higher eukaryotic (mammalian) cells (Daruwala R. et al., 1999, FEBS Letters. 460, 480-484). However, L-ascorbate transporters have not been described among the yeast genera. Nevertheless, while Candida cells growing in media containing L-galactono-1,4-lactone accumulate L-ascorbic acid in the medium, accumulation in the medium of L-ascorbic acid from wild-type S. cerevisiae cells has, surprisingly, never been described.

A desirable method for the large-scale production of ascorbic acid comprises the use of genetically engineered microorganisms (i.e., recombinant microorganisms). Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms are today easily and successfully used for the production of heterologous proteins as well as for the production of heterologous metabolites. Among prokaryotes, Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis are often used. Among eukaryotes, the yeasts S. cerevisiae and Kluyveromyces lactis are often used. Despite the great success of these hosts, only one example has been described for the production of L-ascorbic acid by transformed microbial cells. Since only eukaryotic cells are natural L-ascorbic acid producers, it is even more surprising that only a prokaryotic transformed microbial host has been described to lead to the intracellular accumulation of L-ascorbic acid. Lee et al. (Appl. Environment. Microbiol., 1999, 65, 4685-4687), showed that the cloning of the S. cerevisiae gene encoding D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase into E. coli allows the production of L-ascorbic acid from E. coli incubated with L-galactono-1,4-lactone. Accumulation of L-ascorbic acid was observed only at the intracellular level.

No experimental data have been described in the literature about the production of L-ascorbic acid from transformed eukaryotic microorganisms. Østergaard et al. cloned the gene encoding L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase from cauliflower in the yeast S. cerevisiae (J. Biol. Chem., 1997, 272, 48, 30009-30016). While, in vitro, the authors found L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase activity in the yeast cell extract (cytochrome c assay, see Østergaard et al.), no production of L-ascorbic acid was proven in vivo.

Berry et al., International Patent Appln. WO 99/64618 discuss the potential use of the plant biosynthetic pathway of ascorbic acid; special emphasis is given to the activity catalyzing the conversion of GDP-D-mannose to GDP-L-galactose. However, characterization of the enzyme catalyzing this step has not been presented in detail. An overexpressed E. coli homologue turned out to be inactive.

Smirnoff et al., WO 99/33995, discuss the use of L-galactose dehydrogenase for production of ascorbic acid. The enzyme was purified from pea seedlings and the N-terminal protein sequence was determined. The complete sequence is not known and has not yet been reported. The L-galactose dehydrogenase enzyme partial sequence was 72% identical to amino acids 5-22 of an unidentified putative coding sequence from Arabidopsis thaliana, accession no. 3549669.

Roland et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,595,659 and 4,916,068, discuss the use of non-recombinant Candida strains to convert L-galactonic substrates to L-ascorbic acid. Roland et al. described the responsible enzyme as L-galactono-1,4-lactone oxidase.

Kumar, WO 00/34502, discusses the production of L-ascorbic acid in Candida blankii and Cryptococcus dimennae yeast capable of using 2-keto-L-gulonic acid as a sole carbon source in the production. Kumar specifically excludes the production from yeast by a pathway involving L-galactonolactone oxidase or by conversion of L-galactonic precursors.

It remains desirable to have methods for the production of ascorbic acid by a convenient fermentation process.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one embodiment, this invention relates to a method of generating ascorbic acid, comprising (i) culturing a Kluyveromyces spp. or a Zygosaccharomyces spp. yeast in a medium comprising an ascorbic acid precursor, thereby forming ascorbic acid, and (ii) isolating the ascorbic acid.

In a second embodiment, the present invention relates to a method of generating ascorbic acid, comprising (i) culturing a recombinant yeast in a medium comprising an ascorbic acid precursor, thereby forming ascorbic acid, and (ii) isolating the ascorbic acid. Preferably, the recombinant yeast accumulates ascorbic acid in the medium at a level greater than the background. Also preferably, the recombinant yeast produces ascorbic acid at a yield greater than about 35% from the precursor.

In a third embodiment, the present invention relates to a method of stabilizing ascorbic acid in a medium, comprising culturing a yeast in the medium.

The present invention provides methods for the production of ascorbic acid by a convenient fermentation process.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 provides a schematic representation of the current understanding of the physiological biosynthetic pathways leading from D-glucose to L-ascorbic acid in plants or animals, respectively. The following enzymes are involved: A, L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (1.3.2.3), B, L-galactose dehydrogenase, C, sugar phosphatase (3.1.3.23, putative), D, hydrolase (putative), E, GDP-mannose-3,5-epimerase (5.1.3.18), F, mannose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase (2.7.7.22), G, phosphomannomutase (5.4.2.8), H, mannose-6-phosphate isomerase (5.3.1.8), 1, glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (5.3.1.9), J; hexokinase (2.7.1.1); 1; L-gulono-1,4-lactone oxidase (1.1.3.8); 2; aldonolactonase (3.1.1.17); 2a, glucurono lactone reductase (1.1.1.20) 3; D-glucuronate reductase (1.1.1.1.9); 3a, uronolactonase (3.1.1.19) or spontaneous, 4; D-glucurono kinase (2.7.1.43); 5; glucuronate-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase (2.7.7.44); 6; UDP-D-glucose dehydrogenase (1.1.1.22); 7, UTP-glucose-1-phophate uridylyltransferase (2.7.7.9); 8, phosphoglucomutase (5.4.2.2), 9, hexokinase (2.7.1.1). However, it has to be stressed that in the scope of the present invention to produce L-ascorbic acid, the enzymes useful are not limited to the enzymes of the physiological pathways.

FIG. 2 shows the stability of ascorbic acid under culture conditions. Ascorbic acid was added to mineral medium (2% glucose, 0.67% YNB) and incubated under standard culture conditions for 7 days. The flask of panel A was inoculated at time 0 with non-transformed S. cerevisiae GRF18U to an initial OD⁶⁶⁰ of 0.05, whereas the flask of panel B was kept sterile. Samples were taken at the indicated times and the ascorbic acid concentration was determined. Although the ascorbic acid was stable in this medium when growing yeast was present, it was completely degraded within 7 days in sterile medium.

FIG. 3 shows the endogenous ability of yeasts to convert the precursors L-galactono-1,4-lactone (Gal) or L-gulono-1,4-lactone (Gul) to ascorbic acid. Non-transformed yeast cells (S. cerevisiae GRF18U, W3031B and Z. bailii) were grown on mineral medium (2% glucose, 0.67% YNB) in the presence of 100 mM L-galactono-1,4-lactone or L-gulono-1,4-lactone, respectively, for 72 hr. (Initial OD⁶⁶⁰ was 0.05); “−” signifies that no precursor was added. While ascorbic acid was accumulated within the cell, no ascorbic acid could be detected in the culture broth.

FIG. 4 shows the endogenous ability of yeasts to convert L-galactose to ascorbic acid. Non-transformed S. cerevisiae (GRF18U and W3031B), Z. bailii and K lactis were grown on mineral medium (2% glucose, 0.67% YNB) starting from an OD⁶⁶⁰ of 0.05 overnight. Then, 250 mg 1⁻¹ L-galactose were added and the cultures were kept under standard conditions for another 24 hr before the determination of ascorbic acid. All of these strains accumulated ascorbic acid intracellulary while no ascorbic acid was measurable in the culture broth. (It is believed the high background in K. lactis is due to erythroascorbic acid, naturally present in this yeast species at higher concentrations than seen in S. cerevisiae).

FIG. 5 shows the conversion of L-galactono-1,4-lactone to ascorbic acid by recombinant yeasts. S. cerevisiae GRF18U wt (control), or transformed with AGD or ALO, respectively, were grown on mineral medium (2% glucose, 0.67% YNB) starting from an OD⁶⁶⁰ of 0.05 in the presence of 50 mM L-galactono-1,4-lactone (Gal) for 72 hr. While the control cells did not accumulate ascorbic acid in the culture medium, cells transformed with AGD or ALO unexpectedly accumulated considerable amounts (i.e. greater than background levels) of ascorbic acid in the culture medium. No ascorbic acid was detected in cultures without the addition of L-galactono-1,4-lactone (marked -).

FIG. 6 shows the conversion of L-galactose to ascorbic acid by recombinant yeasts. S. cerevisiae GRF18U wt (control), transformed with LGDH; AGD; ALO; AGD and LGDH; ALO and LGDH; or ARA and ALO, respectively, were grown on mineral medium (2% glucose, 0.67% YNB) starting from an OD⁶⁶⁰ of 0.05 over night. Then 250 mg 1⁻¹ L-galactose were added and the cultures were kept under standard conditions for another 24 hr before the determination of ascorbic acid. The control cells or cells transformed with only LGDH did not accumulate ascorbic acid in the culture medium. Cells transformed with LGDH and either AGD or ALO, as well as cells transformed with ARA and ALO, accumulate considerable amounts (i.e. greater than background levels) of ascorbic acid in the medium.

FIG. 7 shows the conversion of L-galactose to ascorbic acid in a high cell density culture of recombinant yeast. S. cerevisiae GRF18U wt (control) or transformed with ALO, or LGDH and ALO, respectively, were grown on mineral medium (2% glucose, 0.67% YNB) starting from an OD⁶⁶⁰ of 0.05 over night. At time 0 the cells were concentrated 10 times and 250 mg 1⁻¹ L-galactose were added and the cultures were kept under standard conditions for 6 days. At the times indicated samples were taken and the ascorbic acid concentration in the culture broth was measured. While the control cells did not accumulate ascorbic acid in the culture medium, cells transformed with ALO alone or ALO and LGDH accumulated considerable amounts (i.e. greater than background levels) of ascorbic acid in the medium.

DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS

In one embodiment, this invention relates to a method of generating ascorbic acid, comprising (i) culturing a Kluyveromyces spp. or a Zygosaccharomyces spp. yeast in a medium comprising an ascorbic acid precursor, thereby forming ascorbic acid, and (ii) isolating the ascorbic acid. This method is based on the scientific observation that wild-type yeast of the genus Kluyveromyces or Zygosaccharomyces are capable of generating L-ascorbic acid when cultured on a medium containing an ascorbic acid pathway precursor. Preferably, the yeast is Z. bailii or K. lactis. More preferably, the yeast is Z. bailii ATCC 60483 or K. lactis PM6-7A.

The medium in which the yeast is cultured can be any medium known in the art to be suitable for this purpose. Culturing techniques and media are well known in the art. Typically, but it is not limited to, culturing is performed by aqueous fermentation in an appropriate vessel. Examples for a typical vessel for yeast fermentation comprise a shake flask or a bioreactor.

The medium comprises any component required for the growth of the yeast and one or more precursors for the production of ascorbic acid. Components for growth of the yeast and precursors for the production of ascorbic acid may or may be not identical.

The medium comprises a carbon source, such as glucose or other carbohydrates (such as sucrose, fructose, lactose, D-galactose, or hydrolysates of vegetable matter, among others). Typically, the medium also comprises a nitrogen source, either organic or inorganic, and optionally the medium may also comprise components such as amino acids; purines; pyrimidines; corn steep liquor; yeast extract; protein hydrolysates; water-soluble vitamins, such as B complex vitamins; or inorganic salts such as chlorides, hydrochlorides, phosphates, or sulfates of Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, Ni, Co, Cu, Mn, Mo, or Zn, among others. Further components known to one of ordinary skill in the art to be useful in yeast culturing or fermentation can also be included. The medium may or may be not buffered.

The medium also comprises an ascorbic acid precursor. The ascorbic acid precursor is any compound that, in the yeast, can be converted, either directly or through intermediate steps, into L-ascorbic acid. Ascorbic acid precursors include, but are not limited to D-glucose; trehalose; fructose; D-glucose-6-P; D-glucose-1-P; UDP-D-glucose; UDP-glucuronic acid; D-glucuronic acid-1-P; D-glucuronic acid; D-glucurono lactone; L-gulonic acid; D-fructose-6-P; D-mannose-6-P; D-mannose-1-P; GDP-D-mannose; GDP-L-galactose; L-galactose-1-P; L-galactose; L-gulono-1,4-lactone; or L-galactono-1,4-lactone. Preferably, the ascorbic acid precursor is selected from D-glucose; L-galactose; L-galactono-1,4-lactone; or L-gulono-1,4-lactone. Two or more ascorbic acid precursors can also be used.

During the course of the fermentation, the ascorbic acid precursor is internalized by the yeast and converted, through one or more steps, into L-ascorbic acid. The L-ascorbic acid so produced can be contained within the yeast, or can be accumulated in the medium at greater than background levels.

A preferred medium comprises glucose, YNB, and at least one of L-galactono-1,4-lactone; L-gulono-1,4-lactone; or L-galactose.

After culturing has progressed for a sufficient length of time to produce a desired concentration of L-ascorbic acid in the yeast, the culture medium, or both, the L-ascorbic acid is isolated. “Isolated,” as used herein to refer to ascorbic acid, means being brought to a state of greater purity by separation of ascorbic acid from at least one non-ascorbic acid component of the yeast or the medium. Preferably, the isolated ascorbic acid is at least about 95% pure, more preferably at least about 99% pure.

To isolate L-ascorbic acid from the yeast, the first step of isolation, after the yeast is separated from the medium, typically is lysing of the yeast by chemical or enzymatic treatment, treatment with glass beads, sonication, freeze/thaw cycling, or other known techniques. L-ascorbic acid can be purified from the membrane, protein, and nucleic acid fractions of the yeast lysate by appropriate techniques, such as centrifugation, filtration, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, liquid-liquid extraction, crystallization, enzymatic treatment with nuclease or protease, or chromatography, among others.

To isolate L-ascorbic acid accumulated in the medium, the isolation comprises purifying the ascorbic acid from the medium. Purification can be performed by known techniques, such as the use of an ion exchange resin, activated carbon, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, liquid-liquid extraction, crystallization, or chromatography, among others.

L-ascorbic acid can be isolated from both the yeast and the medium.

If the yeast accumulates L-ascorbic acid in the medium during the culturing step, preferably the concentration of L-ascorbic acid is stabilized or allowed to increase.

In a second embodiment, the present invention relates to a method of generating ascorbic acid, comprising (i) culturing a recombinant yeast in a medium comprising an ascorbic acid precursor, thereby forming ascorbic acid, and (ii) isolating the ascorbic acid.

A “recombinant” yeast is a yeast that contains a nucleic acid sequence not naturally occurring in the yeast or an additional copy or copies of an endogenous nucleic acid sequence, wherein the nucleic acid sequence is introduced into the yeast or an ancestor cell thereof by human action. Recombinant DNA techniques are well-known, such as in Sambrook et al., Molecular Genetics: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, which provides further information regarding various techniques known in the art and discussed herein. In this embodiment, a coding region of the homologous and/or heterologous gene is isolated from an organism, which possesses the gene. The organism can be a bacterium, a prokaryote, a eukaryote, a microorganism, a fungus, a plant, or an animal.

Genetic material comprising the coding region can be extracted from cells of the organism by any known technique. Thereafter, the coding region can be isolated by any appropriate technique. In one known technique, the coding region is isolated by, first, preparing a genomic DNA library or a cDNA library, and second, identifying the coding region in the genomic DNA library or cDNA library, such as by probing the library with a labeled nucleotide probe selected to be or presumed to be at least partially homologous with the coding region, determining whether expression of the coding region imparts a detectable phenotype to a library microorganism comprising the coding region, or amplifying the desired sequence by PCR. Other known techniques for isolating the coding region can also be used.

The recombinant yeast can be selected from any known genus and species of yeast. Yeasts are described by N. J. W. Kreger-van Rij, “The Yeasts,” Vol. 1 of Biology of Yeasts, Ch. 2, A. H. Rose and J. S. Harrison, Eds. Academic Press, London, 1987. For example, the yeast genus can be Saccharomyces, Zygosaccharomyces, Candida, Hansenula, Kluyveromyces, Debaromyces, Nadsonia, Lipomyces, Torulopsis, Kloeckera, Pichia, Schizosaccharomyces, Trigonopsis, Brettanomyces, Cryptococcus, Trichosporon, Aureobasidium, Lipomyces, Phaffia, Rhodotorula, Yarrowia, or Schwanniomyces, among others. Saccharomyces, Zygosaccharomyces, Kluyveromyces spp. are preferred. More preferably, the yeasts are S. cerevisiae, Z. bailii and K. lactis. Even more preferably, the yeast is S. cerevisiae strain GRF18U or W3031B, Z. bailii ATCC 60483, or K. lactis PM6-7A.

Preferably, a recombinant yeast of the present invention is not able to produce L-ascorbic acid from 2-keto-L-gulonic acid.

Preferably, the recombinant yeast comprises at least one coding region encoding an enzyme associated with the conversion of a carbon source to ascorbate.

In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the coding region introduced into the recombinant yeast encodes an enzyme selected from L-galactose dehydrogenase (LGDH), L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (AGD), D-arabinose dehydrogenase (ARA), D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase (ALO), L-gulono-1,4-lactone oxidase (RGLO).

In one more preferred embodiment, the coding region of L-galactose dehydrogenase (LGDH), L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (AGD), D-arabinose dehydrogenase (ARA), D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase (ALO), L-gulono-1,4-lactone oxidase (RGLO) are isolated from A. thaliana or S. cerevisiae or Rattus norvegicus. It should be noted that the term “isolated,” as used herein in reference to a nucleic acid sequence, refers to the ultimate source, not the immediate source, of the coding region. That is, a coding region is “isolated” from an organism if it encodes a protein sequence substantially identical to that of the same protein purified from cells of the organism. In even more preferred embodiments, the coding regions encoding LGDH and AGD are isolated from A. thaliana, the coding regions encoding ALO and ARA are isolated from S. cerevisiae, and the coding region encoding RGLO is isolated from R. norvegicus.

In another more preferred embodiment, the amino acid sequence of the LGDH enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% similarity with SEQ ID NO: 11; the amino acid sequence of the AGD enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% similarity with SEQ ID NO:1 or SEQ ID NO:3; the amino acid sequence of the ARA enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% similarity with SEQ ID NO:20; the amino acid sequence of the ALO enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% similarity with SEQ ID NO:5 or SEQ ID NO:7; the amino acid sequence of the RGLO enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% similarity with SEQ ID NO:9; wherein “similarity” is determined by a sequence alignment performed using the CLUSTAL program.

In another more preferred embodiment, the amino acid sequence of the LGDH enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% identity with SEQ ID NO: 11; the amino acid sequence of the AGD enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% identity with SEQ ID NO:1 or SEQ ID NO:3; the amino acid sequence of the ARA enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% identity with SEQ ID NO:20; the amino acid sequence of the ALO enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% identity with SEQ ID NO:5 or SEQ ID NO:7; the amino acid sequence of the RGLO enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% identity with SEQ ID NO:9; wherein “identity” is determined by a sequence alignment performed using the CLUSTAL program.

In another more preferred embodiment, the coding region encoding the LGDH enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% identity with SEQ ID NO 12; the coding region encoding the AGD enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% identity with SEQ ID NO 2 or SEQ ID NO 4; the coding region encoding the ARA enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% identity with SEQ ID NO 21; the coding region encoding the ALO enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% identity with SEQ ID NO 6 or SEQ ID NO 8; the coding region encoding the RGLO enzyme has at least about 70%, more preferably about 80%, and most preferably about 90% identity with SEQ ID NO 10; wherein “identity” is determined by a sequence alignment performed using the CLUSTAL program.

In another preferred embodiment, wherein the enzyme is ARA, the enzyme comprises motif I and motif II of the aldo-keto reductase (AKR) superfamily, specifically the amino acid sequences GXRXXDXAXXXXXEXXXG (SEQ ID NO:13) and GXXN (SEQ ID NO:26), respectively (Kim S. T. et al. 1998, BBA, 1429, 29-39).

In a more preferred embodiment, the recombinant yeast further comprises at least one coding region encoding an enzyme associated with the conversion of a carbon source to L-galactose.

Preferably, a coding region encoding a desired enzyme is incorporated into the yeast in such a manner that the desired enzyme is produced in the yeast and is substantially functional. Such a yeast may be referred to herein as being “functionally transformed.”

Once the coding region has been isolated, it can be prepared for transformation into and expression in the yeast useful in the present invention. At minimum, this involves the insertion of the coding region into a vector and operable linkage to a promoter found on the vector and active in the target organism (i.e., in the present invention, a yeast). Any vector (integrative, chromosomal or episomal) can be used.

Any promoter active in the target host (homologous or heterologous, constitutive, inducible or repressible) can be used. Such insertion often involves the use of restriction endonucleases to “open up” the vector at a desired point where operable linkage to the promoter is possible, followed by ligation of the coding region into the desired point. If desired, before insertion into the vector, the coding region can be prepared for use in the target organism. This can involve altering the codons used in the coding region to more fully match the codon use of the target organism; changing sequences in the coding region that could impair the transcription or translation of the coding region or the stability of an mRNA transcript of the coding region; or adding or removing portions encoding signaling peptides (regions of the protein encoded by the coding region that direct the protein to specific locations (e.g. an organelle, the membrane of the cell or an organelle, or extracellular secretion)), among other possible preparations known in the art. In one embodiment of the present invention, the L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase protein (AGD) comprises a signaling peptide and the coding region encoding the L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase also encodes the signaling peptide. In another embodiment of the present invention, the L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase protein (AGD) does not comprise a signaling peptide and the coding region encoding the L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase also does not encode the signaling peptide. Specifically, the AGD sequence given in SEQ ID NO: 1 comprises a signaling peptide of amino acids 1-100, and the AGD sequence given in SEQ ID NO:2 comprises a signaling peptide of amino acids 1-90. As one of skill in the art will recognize, deletion of a nucleic acid sequence encoding a signaling peptide from a longer nucleic acid sequence encoding a desired enzyme may require the addition of an in-frame ATG codon to allow for proper initiation of translation of the desired enzyme.

Regardless whether the coding region is modified, when the coding region is inserted into the vector, it is operably linked to a promoter active in the yeast. A promoter, as is known, is a DNA sequence that can direct the transcription of a nearby coding region. As already described, the promoter can be constitutive, inducible or repressible. Inducible promoters can be induced by the addition to the medium of an appropriate inducer molecule, which will be determined by the identity of the promoter. Repressible promoters can be repressed by the addition to the medium of an appropriate repressor molecule, which will be determined by the identity of the promoter. Constitutive promoters are preferred, as the use of an inducer or repressor molecule is not required. A preferred constitutive promoter is the S. cerevisiae triosephosphateisomerase (TPI) promoter.

The vector comprising the coding region operably linked to the promoter can be a plasmid, a cosmid, or a yeast artificial chromosome, among others known in the art to be appropriate for use in yeast genera. In addition to the coding region operably linked to the promoter, the vector can also comprise other genetic elements. For example, if the vector is not expected to integrate into the yeast genome, the vector desirably comprises an origin of replication, which allows the vector to be passed on to progeny cells of a yeast comprising the vector. If integration of the vector into the yeast genome is desired, the vector can comprise sequences homologous to sequences found in the yeast genome, and can also comprise coding regions that can facilitate integration. To determine which yeast cells are transformed, the vector preferably comprises a selectable marker or screenable marker which imparts a phenotype to the yeast that distinguishes it from untransformed yeast, e.g. it survives on a medium comprising an antibiotic fatal to untransformed yeast or it metabolizes a component of the medium into a product that the untransformed yeast does not, among other phenotypes. In addition, the vector may comprise other genetic elements, such as restriction endonuclease sites and others typically found in vectors.

After the vector is prepared, with the coding region operably linked to the promoter, the yeast is transformed with the vector (i.e. the vector is introduced into at least one of the cells of a yeast population). Techniques for yeast transformation are well established, and include electroporation, microprojectile bombardment, and the LiAc/ssDNA/PEG method, among others. Yeast cells, which are transformed, can then be detected by the use of a screenable or selectable marker on the vector. It should be noted that the phrase “transformed yeast” has essentially the same meaning as “recombinant yeast,” as defined above. The transformed yeast can be one that received the vector in a transformation technique, or can be a progeny of such a yeast.

After a recombinant yeast has been obtained, the yeast is cultured in a medium. The medium is as described above.

A preferred medium comprises glucose, YNB, and L-galactono-1,4-lactone. Preferred recombinant yeasts which can be cultured in this medium include S. cerevisiae strain GRF18U yeast bearing a S. cerevisiae TPI promoter operably linked to a coding region encoding A. thaliana L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (AGD); and S. cerevisiae strain GRF 18U yeast bearing a S. cerevisiae TPI promoter operably linked to a coding region encoding S. cerevisiae D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase (ALO).

Another preferred medium comprises glucose, YNB and L-gulono-1,4-lactone. One particularly preferred recombinant yeast which can be cultured in this medium include S. cerevisiae strain GRFF18U bearing a S. cerevisiae TPI promoter operably linked to a coding region encoding R. norvegicus L-gulono-1,4-lactone oxidase (RGLO).

Another preferred medium comprises glucose, YNB and L-galactose. One particularly preferred transformed yeast which can be cultured in this medium is S. cerevisiae strain GRF18U yeast bearing (i) a S. cerevisiae TPI promoter operably linked to a coding region encoding A. thaliana L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (AGD) and (ii) a TPI promoter operably linked to a coding region encoding A. thaliana L-galactose dehydrogenase (LGDH). A second particularly preferred transformed yeast which can be cultured in this medium is S. cerevisiae strain GRF 18U yeast comprising (i) a TPI promoter operably linked to a coding region encoding S. cerevisiae D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase (ALO) and (ii) a TPI promoter operably linked to a coding region encoding A. thaliana L-galactose dehydrogenase (LGDH). A third particularly preferred transformed yeast which can be cultured in this medium is & cerevisiae strain GRF18U yeast comprising (i) a TPI promoter operably linked to a coding region encoding S. cerevisiae D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase (ALO) and (ii) a TPI promoter operably linked to a coding region encoding S. cerevisiae D-arabinose dehydrogenase (ARA).

As described for non-recombinant yeast, above, during the course of the fermentation, the ascorbic acid precursor is converted, through one or more steps, into L-ascorbic acid.

While the non-recombinant yeast cells (described above) incubated in similar media typically do not accumulate ascorbic acid above background levels in the medium, surprisingly, the particularly preferred recombinant strains herein described are able to accumulate considerable amounts of L-ascorbic acid above background levels. The only exception relates to a yeast transformed with only LGDH, which does not accumulate L-ascorbic acid above background levels, that indicates the LGDH expression is not the limiting factor. The data taken together indicate that the conversion of L-galactono-1,4-lactone to ascorbic acid is the limiting factor in the pathway leading from L-galactose to ascorbic acid.

Therefore, in a preferred embodiment, the recombinant yeast accumulates L-ascorbic acid in the medium above background levels.

Isolation of the ascorbic acid from the media is as described above. Yields of ascorbic acid of greater than about 35% have been observed, as will be described in the Examples below. Therefore, in a further preferred embodiment, the recombinant yeast produce ascorbic acid with a yield higher than 35% of the precursor. The term “yield” refers to the amount of ascorbic acid (molar as well as weight/volume) produced divided by the amount of precursor consumed (molar as well as weight/volume) multiplied by 100.

The following definitions are provided in order to aid those skilled in the art in understanding the detailed description of the present invention.

The term “accumulation of ascorbic acid above background levels” refers to the accumulation of ascorbic acid above the undetectable levels as determined using the procedures described herein.

“Ascorbic acid” as well as “ascorbate” as used herein, refers to L-ascorbic acid.

“Ascorbic acid precursor” is a compound that can be converted by a yeast of the present invention, either directly or through one or more intermediates, into L-ascorbic acid.

“Amplification” refers to increasing the number of copies of a desired nucleic acid molecule or to increase the activity of an enzyme, by whatsoever means.

“Codon” refers to a sequence of three nucleotides that specify a particular amino acid.

“DNA ligase” refers to an enzyme that covalently joins two pieces of double-stranded DNA.

“Electroporation” refers to a method of introducing foreign DNA into cells that uses a brief, high voltage DC charge to permeabilize the host cells, causing them to take up extra-chromosomal DNA.

“Endonuclease” refers to an enzyme that hydrolyzes double stranded DNA at internal locations.

Enzyme 1.1.3.37, D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase, refers to a protein that catalyzes the conversion of D-arabinono-1,4-lactone+O₂ to D-erythroascorbate+H₂O₂. The same enzyme due to broadness of substrate range catalyses the conversion of L-galactono-1,4-lactone+O₂ to L-ascorbic acid+H₂O₂. Erroneously the same enzyme is referred to as L-galactono-1,4-lactone oxidase (enzyme 1.1.3.24) (see Huh, W. K. et al, 1998, Mol. Microbiol. 30, 4, 895-903).

Enzyme 1.3.2.3, L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase, refers to a protein that catalyzes the conversion of L-galactono-1,4-lactone+2 ferricytochrome C to L-ascorbic acid+2 ferrocytochrome C.

Enzyme 1.1.3.8, L-gulono-1,4-lactone oxidase, refers to a protein that catalyzes the oxidation of L-gulono-1,4-lactone to L-xylo-hexulonolactone which spontaneously isomerizes to L-ascorbic acid.

Other enzymes of interest, and their classification numbers, are as follows: Hexokinase 2.7.1.1 Glucose-6-P isomerase 5.3.1.9 Mannose-6-P isomerase 5.3.1.8 phosphomannomutase 5.4.2.8 Mannose-1-P guanylyltransferase 2.7.7.22 GDP-Mannose 3,5-epimerase 5.1.3.18 Sugar phosphatase 3.1.3.23 L-Galactose-dehydrogenase *) L-Galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase 1.3.2.3 D-Mannose kinase 2.7.1.1 Phosphoglucomutase 5.4.2.2 UTP-Glucose-1-P uridylyl transferase 2.7.7.9 UDP-D-Glucose dehydrogenase 1.1.1.22 UDP-Glucuronate 4-epimerase 5.1.3.6 glucuronate-1-P uridylyltransferase 2.7.7.44 D-Glucuronokinase 2.7.1.43 D-Glucuronate reductase 1.1.1.19 Aldonolactonase 3.1.1.17 L-Gulono-1,4-lactone oxidase 1.1.3.8 Uronolactonase 3.1.1.19 Glucuronolactone reductase activity 1.1.1.20 L-Galactono-1,4-lactone 3-epimerase *) Galacturonate-1-P uridylyltransferase *) Galacturonokinase 2.7.1.44 Hexuronate (D-galacturonate) reductase *) Myoinositol 1-P synthase 5.5.1.4 Myoinositol 1-P monophosphatase 3.1.3.25 Myoinositol oxygenase 1.13.99.1 D-Galactokinase 2.7.1.6 UTP-Hexose 1-P uridylyltransferase 2.7.7.10 UDP-Glucose 4-epimerase 5.1.3.2 Sue synthase 2.4.1.13 Fructokinase 2.7.1.4 *) Classification number not available in databases.

The term “expression” refers to the transcription of a gene to produce the corresponding mRNA and translation of this mRNA to produce the corresponding gene product, i.e., a peptide, polypeptide, or protein.

The phrase “functionally linked” or “operably linked” refers to a promoter or promoter region and a coding or structural sequence in such an orientation and distance that transcription of the coding or structural sequence may be directed by the promoter or promoter region.

The term “gene” refers to chromosomal DNA, plasmid DNA, cDNA, synthetic DNA, or other DNA that encodes a peptide, polypeptide, protein, or RNA molecule, and regions flanking the coding sequence involved in the regulation of expression.

The term “genome” encompasses both the chromosomes and plasmids within a host cell. Encoding DNAs of the present invention introduced into host cells can therefore be either chromosomally integrated or plasmid-localized.

“Heterologous DNA” refers to DNA from a source different than that of the recipient cell.

“Homologous DNA” refers to DNA from the same source as that of the recipient cell.

“Hybridization” refers to the ability of a strand of nucleic acid to join with a complementary strand via base pairing. Hybridization occurs when complementary sequences in the two nucleic acid strands bind to one another.

The term “medium” refers to the chemical environment of the yeast comprising any component required for the growth of the yeast or the recombinant yeast and one or more precursors for the production of ascorbic acid. Components for growth of the yeast and precursors for the production of ascorbic acid may or may be not identical.

“Open reading frame (ORF)” refers to a region of DNA or RNA encoding a peptide, polypeptide, or protein.

“Plasmid” refers to a circular, extra chromosomal, replicatable piece of DNA.

“Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)” refers to an enzymatic technique to create multiple copies of one sequence of nucleic acid. Copies of DNA sequence are prepared by shuttling a DNA polymerase between two amplimers. The basis of this amplification method is multiple cycles of temperature changes to denature, then re-anneal amplimers, followed by extension to synthesize new DNA strands in the region located between the flanking amplimers.

The term “promoter” or “promoter region” refers to a DNA sequence, usually found upstream (5′) to a coding sequence, that controls expression of the coding sequence by controlling production of messenger RNA (mRNA) by providing the recognition site for RNA polymerase and/or other factors necessary for start of transcription at the correct site.

A “recombinant cell” or “transformed cell” is a cell that contains a nucleic acid sequence not naturally occurring in the cell or an additional copy or copies of an endogenous nucleic acid sequence, wherein the nucleic acid sequence is introduced into the cell or an ancestor thereof by human action.

The term “recombinant vector” or “recombinant DNA or RNA construct” refers to any agent such as a plasmid, cosmid, virus, autonomously replicating sequence, phage, or linear or circular single-stranded or double-stranded DNA or RNA nucleotide sequence, derived from any source, capable of genomic integration or autonomous replication, comprising a nucleic acid molecule in which one or more sequences have been linked in a functionally operative manner. Such recombinant constructs or vectors are capable of introducing a 5′ regulatory sequence or promoter region and a DNA sequence for a selected gene product into a cell in such a manner that the DNA sequence is transcribed into a functional mRNA, which may or may not be translated and therefore expressed.

“Restriction enzyme” refers to an enzyme that recognizes a specific sequence of nucleotides in double stranded DNA and cleaves both strands; also called a restriction endonuclease. Cleavage typically occurs within the restriction site or close to it.

“Selectable marker” refers to a nucleic acid sequence whose expression confers a phenotype facilitating identification of cells containing the nucleic acid sequence. Selectable markers include those, which confer resistance to toxic chemicals (e.g. ampicillin, kanamycin) or complement a nutritional deficiency (e.g. uracil, histidine, leucine).

“Screenable marker” refers to a nucleic acid sequence whose expression imparts a visually distinguishing characteristic (e.g. color changes, fluorescence).

“Transcription” refers to the process of producing an RNA copy from a DNA template.

“Transformation” refers to a process of introducing an exogenous nucleic acid sequence (e.g., a vector, plasmid, or recombinant nucleic acid molecule) into a cell in which that exogenous nucleic acid is incorporated into a chromosome or is capable of autonomous replication. A cell that has undergone transformation, or a descendant of such a cell, is “transformed” or “recombinant.” If the exogenous nucleic acid comprises a coding region encoding a desired protein, and the desired protein is produced in the transformed yeast and is substantially functional, such a transformed yeast is “functionally transformed.”

“Translation” refers to the production of protein from messenger RNA.

The term “yield” refers to the amount of ascorbic acid produced (molar or weight/volume) divided by the amount of precursor consumed (molar or weight/volume) multiplied by 100.

“Unit” of enzyme refers to the enzymatic activity and indicates the amount of micromoles of substrate converted per mg of total cell proteins per minute.

“Vector” refers to a DNA or RNA molecule (such as a plasmid, cosmid, bacteriophage, yeast artificial chromosome, or virus, among others) that carries nucleic acid sequences into a host cell. The vector or a portion of it can be inserted into the genome of the host cell.

List of Abbreviations:

-   Asc L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C) -   AGD L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (without signaling     peptide, from A. thaliana) -   ALO D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase from S. cerevisiae -   ARA D-arabinose dehydrogenase from S. cerevisiae -   Gal L-galactono-1,4-lactone -   Gul L-gulono-1,4-lactone -   LGDH L-galactose dehydrogenase from A. thaliana -   RGLO L-gulono-1,4-lactone oxidase from R. norvegicus -   TCA trichloro acetic acid -   TPI triosephosphateisomerase

EXAMPLES

The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred embodiments of the invention. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the techniques disclosed in the examples which follow represent techniques discovered by the inventors to function well in the practice of the invention, and thus can be considered to constitute preferred modes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments which are disclosed and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

Materials and Methods

1. Determination of Ascorbic Acid

Ascorbic acid was determined spectrophotometrically following a method after Sullivan et al. (1955, Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 38, 2, 514-518). 135 μl of sample were mixed in a cuvette with 40 μl of H₃PO₄ (85%). Then 675 μl α,α′-Bipyridyl (0.5%) and 135 μl FeCl₃ (1%) were added. After 10 min the absorbance at 525 nm was measured. The identity of the ascorbic acid was confirmed by HPLC (Tracer Extrasil Column C8, 5 μM, 15×0.46 cm, Teknokroma, S. Coop. C. Ltda. # TR-016077; Eluent: 5 mM cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, 50 mM KH₂PO₄ in 95/5H₂O/Acetonitrile; Flow rate: 1 ml min⁻¹, Detection UV @ 254 nm) with pure L-ascorbic acid (Aldrich, A9,290-2) as standard.

2. Determination of Protein Concentration

Protein concentrations were determined following Lowry's method (Lowry O. H. et al., 1951, J. Biol. Chem. 193, 265-275), using the Bio-Rad DC Protein Assay Kit II (Cat. Nr. 500-0112) with BSA as standard.

3. Amplification of Specific Gene Sequences

To amplify specific gene sequences, PfuTurbo DNA polymerase (Stratagene #600252) was used on a GeneAmp PCR System 9700 (PE Appl. Biosystems, Inc.). Standard conditions used were: 400 μM dNTP, 0.5 μM primers, 0.5 mM MgCl₂ (in addition to the buffer), and 3.75 U Pfu per 100 μl reaction.

The sequences of the genes used have been publicly reported via Genbank, as follows: Gene Genbank accession no(s). SEQ ID NO: AGD AL049658 2 (Gene no. T17F15.200) AGD homolog Z97060 4 from Brassica ALO U40390, AB009401 6, 8 RGLO J03536 10 ARA Y13134, Z36018 21 (ORF YBR149w)

The following program was used for amplification of AGD: 94° C. 5 min 94° C. 45 s 53.5° C. 30 s 72° C. 1 min {close oversize brace} 33 cycles 40 s 72° C. 7 min 4° C. ∞

The following program was used for amplification of ALO: 94° C. 5 min 94° C. 45 s 50° C. 30 s 72° C. 1 min {close oversize brace} 33 cycles 40 s 72° C. 7 min  4° C. ∞

The following program was used for amplification of ARA: 94° C. 5 min 94° C. 45 s 56° C. 30 s 72° C. 1 min {close oversize brace} 33 cycles 40 s 72° C. 7 min  4° C. ∞

The following program was used for amplification of LGDH: 94° C. 5 min 94° C. 45 s 56° C. 30 s 72° C. 1 min {close oversize brace} 33 cycles 40 s 72° C. 7 min  4° C. ∞

The following program was used for amplification of RGLO: 94° C. 30 s 94° C. 5 s {close oversize brace} 33 cycles 72° C. 4 min 72° C. 5 min  4° C. ∞

Template DNA for AGD and LGDH: 50 ng plasmid cDNA library pFL61 Arabidopsis (ATCC #77500 (Minet M. et al, 1992, Plant J., 2, 417-422)). Template DNA for RGLO: 0.5 ng rat liver marathon-ready cDNA library (Clontech #7471-1). Template DNA for ALO and ARA: 50 ng genomic DNA from S. cerevisiae GRF18U, extracted using a standard method. PCR products were blunt end cloned into the EcoRV site of pSTBlue-1 using the perfectly blunt cloning kit from Novagen Inc. (#70191-4). Oligonucleotides used Gene amplified SEQ ID NO:14: caagaaggcctaaatgttccgt tacgctcc SEQ ID NO:15: atgggcccttaagcagtggtg AGD (plant) gagactggg SEQ ID NO:16: tgaggggtcagggtggtttgt ttcca SEQ ID NO:17: tggaatcatggtccatgggta RGLO (rat) caaaggg SEQ ID NO:18: tttcaccatatgtctactat cc SEQ ID NO:19: aaggatcctagtcggacaac ALO (yeast) tc SEQ ID NO:22: atgacgaaaatagagcttcg agc SEQ ID NO:23: ttagttctgatggattccac LGDH (plant) ttgg SEQ ID NO:24: atgtcttcttcagtagcctc aacc SEQ ID NO:25: ttaatactttaaattgtcca ARA (yeast) agtttggtc

4. Plasmid Construction

The naming convention used herein is that pSTBlue-1 containing, for example, AGD in sense direction regarding its multiple cloning site (MCS) was designated pSTB AGD-1. In a further example, pSTBlue-1 containing AGD in antisense direction regarding its MCS was designated pSTB AGD-2, and so on.

Inserts were cloned using the pYX series (R&D Systems, Inc.) below. Standard procedures were employed for all cloning purposes (Sambrook J. et al., Molecular Genetics: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press). pSTB AGD-1 EcoRI pYX042 pL AGD pSTB LGDH-1 EcoRI pYX022 pH LGDH pSTB ALO-1 EcoRI pYX042 pL ALO pSTB SacI BamHI pYX022 EcoRI BamHI pH ARA-2 blunt blunt ARA pSTB NotI KpnI pYX042 EcoRI pL RGLO-1 blunt blunt blunt RGLO

5. Yeast Cultivation and Examination:

Yeast strains used were S. cerevisiae GRF 18U (Brarnbilla, L. et al., 1999, FEMS Microb. Lett. 171, 133-140), W3031B, Z. bailii ATCC 60483, and K. lactis PM6-7A (Wesolowski-Louvel, M. et al., 1992, Yeast 8, 711-719). All strains were cultivated in shake flasks in minimal medium (0.67% w/v YNB (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, Mich. #919-15), 2% w/v glucose, addition of the appropriate amino acids or adenine or uracil, respectively, to 50 μg 1⁻¹) under standard conditions (shaking at 30° C.) The initial optical density at 660 nm was about 0.05.

For incubation with L-galactose the cells were grown over night, then 250 mg 1⁻¹ of L-galactose were added and the cells were incubated for 24 hr. For incubation with substrates other than L-galactose, the cells were grown in presence of 50 mM or 100 mM of the respective substrates for 72 hr.

Cells were recovered by centrifugation at 4000 rpm for 5 min at 4° C., washed once with cold distilled H₂O, and treated as follows: for determination of intracellular ascorbic acid, cells were resuspended in about 3 times the pellet volume of cold 10% TCA, vortexed vigorously, kept on ice for about 20 min then the supernatant was cleared from the cell debris by centrifugation.

6. Yeast Transformation:

Transformation of yeast cells was done following the standard LiAc/ss-DNA/PEG method (Gietz, R. D. and Schiestl, R. H., 1996, Transforming Yeast with DNA, Methods in Mol. and Cell. Biol.). Transformed yeast are being deposited with ATCC, catalog numbers not yet assigned.

Experimental Results

1. Stability of L-ascorbic Acid

To determine the stability of ascorbic acid under culture conditions, we added ascorbic acid to our standard medium (2% glucose, 0.67% YNB) and incubated the solution in shake flasks shaking at 30° C. FIG. 2 shows the respective results. In sterile medium, ascorbic acid is rapidly degraded (see panel B), whereas it is completely stable if growing yeast is present (see panel A). This result shows that culturing yeast in a medium is a method of stabilizing ascorbic acid.

2. Ascorbic Acid Production from Non-Transformed Yeasts

According to the literature, wild-type (wt) yeast comprises a D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase activity with a broad substrate specificity (Huh W. K. et al., 1994, Eur. J. Biochem. 225, 1073-1079). Such activity has been demonstrated in vitro. To determine whether the substrates or the product could cross the cell membrane, we incubated three different yeast strains (S. cerevisiae GRF 18U and W3031B, as well as Z. bailii) with L-galactono-1,4-lactone (the last precursor of the plant biosynthetic pathway leading to ascorbic acid) or L-gulono-1,4-lactone (the last precursor of the animal metabolic pathway). As shown in FIG. 3, both of the substances can be internalized into the yeast cell and can be converted to ascorbic acid. No ascorbic acid was accumulated in the culture broth (not shown) but significant amounts were measured in whole cell extracts.

The next prior precursor in the plant pathway is L-galactose. FIG. 4 shows the results of incubations of yeast cells with this substrate. S. cerevisiae, Z. bailii, and K. lactis are able to produce ascorbic acid from this compound, but also in this case ascorbic acid is accumulated to a significant amount inside of the cell (FIG. 4), but the concentration in the culture medium remains under the detection limit (not shown).

3. Ascorbic Acid Production and Accumulation in the Medium from Transformed Yeasts

We cloned the homologous genes of D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase (ALO) and D-arabinose dehydrogenase (ARA), as well as the heterologous A. thaliana genes for L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (AGD) and L-galactose dehydrogenase (LGDH). These genes were cloned into available yeast expression vectors like outlined in materials and methods. In short, the plasmids are integrative and the TPI promoter, a naturally strong and constitutive promoter of S. cerevisiae, drives the expression of the genes in question. Upon incubation of S. cerevisiae GRF 18U transformed with AGD or ALO with L-galactono-1,4-lactone, the cells not only accumulated ascorbic acid intracellularly (not shown), but also, surprisingly, accumulated considerable amounts of ascorbic acid into the culture broth (FIG. 5). This was also true for the same transformed cells incubated with L-galactose (FIG. 6). Cotransformation of L-galactose dehydrogenase or D-arabinose dehydrogenase significantly increased the ability of the respective yeast strain to convert L-galactose to ascorbic acid (FIG. 6). FIG. 7 shows data of a high-density culture converting L-galactose to ascorbic acid. The respective yeast strains were grown overnight in standard minimal medium. The next day, the cells were aseptically centrifuged and the pellet was resuspended in 1/10 of the supernatant to concentrate the cells 10 times. Then, 250 mg 1⁻¹ of L-galactose were added and the cultures were incubated under standard conditions for 6 days. After 6 days the strain transformed with ALO and LGDH accumulated over 70 mg ascorbic acid per liter culture medium. 30 mg 1⁻¹ ascorbic acid were accumulated intracellularly (not shown). Taking these two values together corresponds to a conversion of around 40% of the L-galactose added.

The following table summarizes the main examples reported in this invention. Production of Ascorbic Examples of Examples of Gene Examples of acid Yeast overexpressed Converted precursors intracellular extracellular S. cerevisiae no L-galactono-1,4-lactone yes no L-gulono-1,4-lactone L-galactose K. lactis no L-galactose yes no Z. bailii no L-galactono-1,4-lactone yes no L-gulono-1,4-lactone L-galactose S. cerevisiae AGD L-galactono-1,4-lactone yes yes (from A. thaliana) S. cerevisiae ARA L-galactono-1,4-lactone yes yes S. cerevisiae LGDH L-galactose yes no (from A. thaliana) S. cerevisiae LGDH L-galactose yes yes (from A. thaliana) + ALO or AGD (from A. thaliana) S. cerevisiae ARA + ALO L-galactose yes yes S. cerevisiae RGLO L-gulono-1,4-lactone Not det. Not det. (from R. norvegicus)

While the compositions and methods and yeast strains of this invention have been described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that variations may be applied without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention.

REFERENCES

The following references, to the extent that they provide exemplary procedural or other details supplementary to those set forth herein, are specifically incorporated herein by reference.

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1. A method of generating ascorbic acid, comprising: culturing a Kluyveromyces spp. or a Zygosaccharomyces spp. yeast in a medium comprising an ascorbic acid precursor, thereby forming ascorbic acid, and isolating the ascorbic acid.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the yeast is a Z. bailii or a K. lactis.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the yeast is Z. bailii strain ATCC 60483 or K. lactis strain PM6-7A.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the ascorbic acid precursor is L-galactose; D-glucose; L-galactono-1,4-lactone; or L-gulonono-1,4-lactone.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the isolating step comprises lysing the yeast.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the isolating step further comprises centrifugation, filtration, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, liquid-liquid extraction, crystallization, enzymatic treatment with nuclease or protease, or chromatography.
 7. A method of generating ascorbic acid, comprising: a) obtaining a recombinant yeast capable of converting an ascorbic acid precursor into ascorbic acid b) culturing the recombinant yeast in a medium comprising an ascorbic acid precursor, thereby forming ascorbic acid, and c) isolating the ascorbic acid.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the yeast belongs to the genus Saccharomyces, Zygosaccharomyces, Candida, Hansenula, Kluyveromyces, Debaromyces, Nadsonia, Lipomyces, Torulopsis, Kloeckera, Pichia, Schizosaccharomyces, Trigonopsis, Brettanomyces, Cryptococcus, Trichosporon, Aureobasidium, Lipomyces, Phaffia, Rhodotorula, Yarrowia, or Schwanniomyces.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the yeast belongs to the species S. cerevisiae, K. lactis, or Z. bailii.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the yeast is selected from S. cerevisiae strain GRF18U; S. cerevisiae strain W3031B; K. lactis strain PM6-7A; or Z. bailii strain ATCC
 60483. 11. The method of claim 7, wherein the yeast is functionally transformed with a coding region encoding a first enzyme selected from L-galactose dehydrogenase (LGDH), L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (AGD), D-arabinose dehydrogenase (ARA), D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase (ALO), or L-gulono-1,4-lactone oxidase (RGLO).
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the LGDH enzyme has at least about 70% similarity with SEQ ID NO: 11; the AGD enzyme has at least about 70% similarity with SEQ ID NO:1 or SEQ ID NO:3; the ARA enzyme has at least about 70% similarity with SEQ ID NO:20; the ALO enzyme has at least about 70% similarity with SEQ ID NO:5 or SEQ ID NO:7; or the RGLO enzyme has at least about 70% similarity with SEQ ID NO:9.
 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the LGDH enzyme has at least about 70% identity with SEQ ID NO: 11; the AGD enzyme has at least about 70% identity with SEQ ID NO: 1 or SEQ ID NO:3; the ARA enzyme has at least about 70% identity with SEQ ID NO:20; the ALO enzyme has at least about 70% identity with SEQ ID NO:5 or SEQ ID NO:7; or the RGLO enzyme has at least about 70% identity with SEQ ID NO:9.
 14. The method of claim 11, wherein the coding region encoding the LGDH enzyme has at least about 70% identity with SEQ ID NO:12; the coding region encoding the AGD enzyme has at least about 70% identity with SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:4; the coding region encoding the ARA enzyme has at least about 70% identity with SEQ ID NO:21; the coding region encoding the ALO enzyme has at least about 70% identity with SEQ ID NO:6 or SEQ ID NO:8; or the coding region encoding the RGLO enzyme has at least about 70% identity with SEQ ID NO:
 10. 15. The method of claim 11, wherein the yeast is functionally transformed with a coding region encoding ALO.
 16. The method of claim 11, wherein the yeast is functionally transformed with a coding region encoding ARA.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the ARA comprises the amino acid sequences GXRXXDXAXXXXXEXXXG (SEQ ID NO: 13) and GXXN (SEQ ID NO:26).
 18. The method of claim 11, wherein the coding region is linked to a promoter active in the yeast.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the promoter is the S. cerevisiae triosephosphateisomerase (TPI) promoter.
 20. The method of claim 11, wherein the coding region was isolated from A. thaliana, S. cerevisiae, or R. norvegicus.
 21. The method of claim 20, wherein the coding region encoding LGDH was isolated from A. thaliana, the coding region encoding ALO was isolated from S. cerevisiae, the coding region encoding AGD was isolated from A. thaliana, the coding region encoding ARA was isolated from S. cerevisiae, or the coding region encoding RGLO was isolated from R. norvegicus.
 22. The method of claim 11, wherein the AGD enzyme comprises a signaling peptide.
 23. The method of claim 11, wherein the AGD enzyme does not comprise a signaling peptide.
 24. The method of claim 11, wherein the yeast is functionally transformed with a coding region encoding a second enzyme other than the first enzyme, wherein the second enzyme is selected from LGDH, AGD, ARA, ALO, or RGLO.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the coding region encoding the second enzyme is linked to a promoter active in the yeast.
 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the promoter is the S. cerevisiae triosephosphateisomerase (TPI) promoter.
 27. The method of claim 11, wherein the recombinant yeast further comprises at least one coding region encoding an enzyme associated with the conversion of a carbon source to L-galactose.
 28. The method of claim 7, wherein the ascorbic acid precursor is selected from L-galactono-1,4-lactone; D-glucose; L-gulono-1,4-lactone; or L-galactose.
 29. The method of claim 7, wherein the isolating step comprises lysing the yeast.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein the isolating step further comprises centrifugation, filtration, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, liquid-liquid extraction, crystallization, enzymatic treatment with nuclease or protease, or chromatography.
 31. The method of claim 7, wherein the recombinant yeast accumulates L-ascorbic acid in the medium at levels greater than background.
 32. The method of claim 31, wherein the isolating step comprises chromatography, activated carbon, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, liquid-liquid extraction, or crystallization.
 33. The method of claim 7, wherein the recombinant yeast produces ascorbic acid with a yield greater than about 35% from a precursor.
 34. A method of stabilizing ascorbic acid in a medium, comprising: culturing a yeast in the medium.
 35. A S. cerevisiae, wherein the S. cerevisiae is functionally transformed with one or more coding regions selected from a coding region encoding D-arabinose dehydrogenase (ARA), a coding region encoding L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (AGD), a coding region encoding D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase (ALO), a coding region encoding L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (AGD) and a coding region encoding L-galactose dehydrogenase (LGDH), a coding region encoding D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase (ALO) and a coding region encoding L-galactose dehydrogenase (LGDH), or a coding region encoding D-arabinono-1,4-lactone oxidase (ALO) and a coding region encoding D-arabinose dehydrogenase (ARA). 36-40. (canceled) 